Cable/Wiring Testing

Wiring infrastructure is the backbone of any network. Even if everything does seem all well and good, there could be room for improvement somewhere to increase network efficiency. If wires have been run incorrectly, that infrastructure may not be up to code. Whether it comes down to copper wiring, fiber optics, or equipment used to support the infrastructure like racks and cabinets, INC is ready to evaluate your facility.

Getting a second opinion never hurts; an extra pair of eyes can sometimes spot something that the initial installer may have missed. When testing a network there are three main steps: performing a visual inspection, taking measurements with tools, and providing documentation with test results.

Visual Inspection

A visual inspection is fairly simple and involves examining the cabling externally. If a cable is noticeably damaged with something like a kink in the wire or a worn jacket that has exposed internal components, that is an obvious problem. But checking for obvious damage is only the first part of this step.

Pathways such as conduit will also be inspected to ensure building codes are being met, within reason. Unless other problems are found when taking measurements later, it should not be necessary to pull cables out of the wall or anything like that. The examination will also include checking equipment rooms and telecom closest to looks for tangled wires along with any other potential problems.

As far as organization goes, cables will also be checked for labels. Oftentimes it may be difficult or even impossible to tell what cable goes where. This may not hamper day-to-day activities but it can cause major issues in the event of an emergency. Examining the placement of cables compared to other equipment is also critical to minimize signal loss from electromagnetic interference (EMI).

The ends of each cable will also be closely examined to ensure each connector is terminated properly. A loosely terminated connector can have a weak signal. It is also critical to check that the ground is connected properly, to avoid any damage to equipment or injury to persons.

Test Measurements

Once the visual inspection is complete, the next step is using testing tools. The exact type of tester used will depend on the type of cable or equipment being examined. In general terms, all testers perform the same function; ensuring that cables are transmitting a signal correctly. There are a few common tools that may be used during this step.

A multimeter is one of the most common testers used. It is a basic tool that does its job well and is used more than any other type of tester. Paired with copper wires such as coax or ethernet cable, a multimeter can test voltage, current, and resistance.

Phone
Ethernet
Coax

Another common device is simply called a tester. These simple devices that work in pairs to check pin configurations. The two units try sending electrical signals back and forth to each other. If one of the signals does not make it, a red light on the unit lets you know there is a problem.

A more heavy-duty version of a tester is called a tone generator, which is used with multi-pin connections such as telephone and ethernet lines. These types of cables contain multiple smaller wires on the inside and damage to just one can affect the performance of the whole cable. A tone generator tests these individuals wires one-by-one and can identify what kind of problem there is if an issue is present.

Cable sniffers, also called locators, support multiple types of cables such as ethernet, phone lines, coax, and even USB. Working in pairs, cable sniffers are used to test cables without having to plug them into actual equipment. A sniffer analyzes the signal going through the cable and can tell if there is a short or any other problem.

Phone systems can be tested with a butt-set, which is a two part kit. The first part plugs into a phone port and has several lines coming out that accept alligator clips. The main unit uses the aforementioned alligator clips and features a number pad to mimic a telephone, allowing for easy testing without having to hook up an actual phone.

All of these tools are just a few basic examples of what may or may not be used during an evaluation. The exact tools needed for the job will depend on what types of cables and equipment are being examined, but the testers listed above are among the most common pieces of equipment used for these examinations.

Documentation

Once the visual inspection is complete and the test measurements have been taken, INC will start compiling the results. We can translate the observations and raw data into an easy-to-read document. This documentation will be your written record of the testing and what you can wave at the next inspector who comes knocking.

If any issues are found, the documents will also include recommendations for improvements. In extreme cases, this could involve getting things up to code. But more often than not, there are simply a few tips and tricks that can be used to boost network efficiency with a little simple reorganization. These documents can be provided in paper or electronic formats, or both.

At INC, we perform testing for offices, educational facilities, residential buildings, industrial plants, and more. A simple wiring test is the start of preparing your building for improvements that can provide greater network speeds than ever before. Whether a network uses fiber optic, ethernet, or even wireless systems, INC is ready to get the job done right.
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If you have additional questions on this process, please call us directly at 888-519-9525 or request a quote here. Our team will work with you to prepare the site survey and customize your installation project.

Structured Cabling Installation

“Structured cabling” is an industry term that gets thrown around a lot. Some people use it as just a buzzword, but it actually refers to how a cabling system is designed and installed within a building. Along with the cables themselves, this also includes any hardware being connected during installation plus anything else that may be added later on. Planning for the future is one of the major considerations when it comes to planning out structured cabling installation.

Network cables such as ethernet, telephone lines, coax cable, and fiber optics are all commonly found during these installations. Some general methodology does apply for all installations but it can change depending on what kind of facility is being prepared, such as standard practices for an office vs. a school. The individual, specific needs of each project allows for further customization from those guidelines on a case-by-case basis. In the United States, standards used for these projects are set by the Telecommunications Industry Association, specifically TIA/EIA-568.

Each blueprint for a structured cabling installation plan can be broken down into six sections: entrance facilities, equipment rooms, backbone cabling, telecommunications rooms, horizontal cabling, and work-area components.

Entrance Facilities

An entrance facility is the area where cables coming from utility providers stop and cabling classified as part of the building starts. This access point allows equipment inside the building to be connected to the Internet, telephone lines, and other local area infrastructure. It is commonly marked by a demarcation point. The entrance facility also includes entrance pathways, connecting hardware, transition hardware, and circuit protection devices.

Equipment Rooms

Equipment rooms are the central location for IT hardware used to run systems inside the buildings. They can be as the center of a network and are more expansive than telecommunications rooms. Equipment rooms feature heavy-duty hardware such as servers that are used to network the rest of the system together. This type of equipment is often stored on racks or cabinets for stability and security. An equipment room is generally off-limits to non-IT staff and temperature controlled to keep equipment running optimally.

Backbone Cabling

Backbone cabling refers to the wires used to connect the entrance facility, equipment room, and telecommunications rooms. Depending on the type of hardware being used in those locations, this can include ethernet cable, telephone cable, coax cable, and/or fiber optic cable. These cables handle the majority of traffic running through the network, hence the name “backbone”. Backbone cables can be divided into two sub-categories, intrabuilding and interbuilding. Intrabuilding cabling runs between different rooms in a single building. Interbuilding cabling is used to connect networks between two or more buildings. Along with the cables themselves, the term “backbone cabling” also refers to hardware used to install those cables such as conduit, firestops, and grounding equipment.

Telecommunications Rooms

A telecommunications room is an off-shoot from the main equipment room. Whereas the equipment room only connects to servers and other primary hardware, the telecommunications rooms will connect directly to user devices such as computers and printers. These smaller rooms will house the backbone and horizontal cabling, connecting them to hardware with smaller patch cables.

Horizontal Cabling

Horizontal cabling refers to cables that run between the telecommunications rooms and wall outlets. These cables are what allow individual computers, printers, and other devices to have network access. This term refers to cables used for Internet access and will consist of either ethernet or fiber optic lines depending on your network set-up. Since these cables commonly run through walls, ceilings, and floors, they often need to be plenum rated.

Work Area Components

Work area components are the cables used to connect end-user hardware to the horizontal cabling. Typically, this refers to ethernet patch cables running between the back of a computer and a wall outlet.


Benefit from Structured Cabling Today

Having a centralized hub for a network allows data to transfer faster. Imagine data needs to go from one computer to another. With structured cabling, it will go from Point A (Computer 1) to Point B (a telecommunications room) to Point C (Computer 2). It is possible to make direct connections between your hardware without structured cabling and crisscross everything together. But a network Frankensteined together will have fewer direct connections. Moving data might make it go from Point A all the way through Point M because all the equipment is connected haphazardly. Needless to say, going through a dozen connections takes a lot longer than going through three.

In the event of a problem, solutions are also easier to implement with a structured cabling system. With the more delicate parts of the system under the lock-and-key of trained IT professionals, human error is less likely to cause problems. If there is an issue, components can be fixed or replaced simply and rerouting network traffic to other parts of the system can reduce downtime as well.

At INC, we perform structured cabling installations for offices, educational facilities, residential buildings, industrial plants, and more. A simple site survey will allow us to start preparing a custom plan for optimizing hardware installation and network usage just for you. Whether a network uses fiber optic, ethernet, or even wireless systems, INC is ready to get the job done right.

If you have additional questions on this process, please call us directly at 888-519-9525 or request a quote here. Our team will work with you to prepare the site survey and customize your installation project.

Fiber Optic Installation

Upgrading to new technology is great but it can put strains on older networks. While there is nothing inherently wrong with traditional copper cable, many businesses and other institutions are making the switch to fiber optic. Fiber cable can be run at greater distances and supports much higher data speeds than its older copper counterparts. With recent innovations in the technology, the once-fragile fiber cable is now more durable and simpler to install. For growing facilities that plan to expand their systems as the years go on, fiber optic is the best way to plan for the future.

Fiber vs. Ethernet

To understand the differences between ethernet and fiber, you need to start with how they work. Ethernet cables contain copper cores which transmit data through an electrical signal. While ethernet has evolved over the years, the fundamental technology remains the same. The major drawback of ethernet is that the electrical signals can be disrupted by electromagnetic interference (EMI). Anything that uses large amounts of power, from simple power cords to heavy industrial machinery, can generate EMI. As an older technology, ethernet will eventually reach its limit while fiber optic cable continues to improve.

Fiber cables transmit data using light (lasers) instead of electricity. These cables are filled with small pieces of glass that bounce the laser down the length of the cable. Since light moves faster than electricity, fiber cables are able to transmit data much faster than ethernet. Fiber optic cable does not suffer any ill effects from EMI or any other sort of interference. Think of the fiber optics and ethernet comparison as the same as DVDs and VHS tapes. VHS still saw use after DVDs were introduced, but were slowly phased out in favor of the new and improved technology.

Also note that fiber and ethernet are compatible with each other, so existing ethernet networks can be upgraded with fiber. Older networks do not have to be 100% replaced all at once. Upgrades can be gradually made over time.

Types of Fiber

Like ethernet, fiber optic cable comes in a few different flavors. The main categories are single-mode and multimode. Multimode can be further divided into OM1, OM2, OM3, and OM4.

Single-mode is used for long-range transmissions. Provided a powerful enough laser is being used to send the signal, a single-mode cable can run for miles by itself. Typically, single-mode sees use by the telecommunications industry. Single-mode fiber is usually color-coded yellow.

Multimode uses a thicker core than single-mode, which allows for more lasers to run through the cable. This, in turn, provides better signal speeds. OM1 and OM2 cables are color-coded orange and support up to 1GB data transfer speeds. OM2 is the newer of the two and capable of running for longer distances than OM1. OM3 and OM4 have a similar relationship, being color-coded aqua and supporting speeds between 10GB and 100GB depending on distance.

There are also different types of fiber connectors which come in a few different sizes and shapes. Exactly which type you need will be dictated by the equipment being used with the cables. This is something that will be evaluated during the site survey prior to installation.

Project Preparation and Execution

Before any installation, a survey of the job site will take place. A surveyor will come out to evaluate the premises, taking notes about the layout to determine what practices will be best for the install. This information will be sent to our expert team of Project Managers, who will then begin drawing up plans for the project. Once the plan is in place and approved, materials will be sent directly to the job site.

From there, one of our teams of installers will be dispatched. Our experts are capable of handling any fiber project, from a small office of a few hundred square feet to a multi-building complex that needs fiber optic cabling stretching for miles. After the cable is down, our team can use it to set up a new network or connect to existing infrastructure.

At INC, we perform fiber installations for offices, educational facilities, residential buildings, industrial plants, and more. A simple site survey is the start of preparing your building for fiber network installations that will provide greater network speeds than ever before. Whether a network uses fiber optic, ethernet, or even wireless systems, INC is ready to get the job done right.


If you have additional questions on this process, please call us directly at 888-519-9525 or request a quote here. Our team will work with you to prepare the site survey and customize your installation project.

Cabling Site Surveys

So, you need a bit of cabling infrastructure work done. Maybe you are moving into a new office and need ethernet lines run. Or maybe some classrooms need projectors set up before the new school year starts. In any event, each project is going to be a bit unique. The existing infrastructure will determine which methodology is best for your particular set-up. Performing a site survey is crucial towards ensuring the rest of the project runs smoothly.

Prepping for a Survey

The goal of a site survey is for the surveyor to gain a full understanding of the project site layout. This knowledge is critical for formulating an installation plan. These professionals will need a few things from the client in order to conduct the survey successfully. Be prepared to work with them at the job site.

Someone will need to be at the project site to let the surveyor into the building. If the surveyor does not have a way in, the survey cannot be completed. The on-site representative should also be able to point the surveyor in the direction of the project site. For something like a demarc extension, this would be the MPOE (Main/Minimum Point of Entry), the spot where cables from the utility company enter the building. For something like a speaker installation, it will be whatever room the speakers are going into. Plan accordingly depending on what type of project is being surveyed.

If there is any documentation for the building, it can make the site survey quicker. Internally, this can include floor plans, roof plans, power plans, HVAC plans, and/or sprinkler plans. Externally, a site plan showing property lines, power lines, water pipes, gas pipes, trees, roads, and other obstacles can also be useful. Again, exactly what types of plans will help is going to depend on what kind of service the surveyor is examining the site for.

Brand-New vs. Upgrades

If a job site is new, site surveys and installations go very smoothly. The new cabling and other equipment can be run and set up fairly easily. Key considerations here include determining what kind of services will be needed (voice, data, video, etc.). The location of the equipment room is another critical factor, with that location acting as the hub of the network. What materials the building is made of is also a major factor, such as running cables behind a wooden wall vs. a concrete wall. The floor plans and other related documents will determine the best options when going through this step.

Available pathways are key when planning any infrastructure. Where are the pathways available? How much open space is there? Is there other equipment such as ventilation ducts that could get in the way? Where are outlet spaces available for connecting new lines? Any installation will be limited by the size and shape of the project site’s infrastructure.

When it comes to existing systems, there is a little more prep work involved. The site survey will determine where the new equipment will connect to the current infrastructure. This is typically determined by the location of an equipment room or telecom closet and what kind of space is available in the walls, floors, and ceilings between that point and the work site. For multi-building installations such as universities, this will include connecting to the main network.

The survey will also determine if additional equipment such as a rack or cabinet is needed. In areas holding heavy equipment, this involves checking the floor-loading capacity. If heavy equipment is needed, surveyors will also check if an elevator is needed and if the available elevators can also handle the size and weight of the equipment. It also includes making sure a ground is available for electrical connections.

Installation Safety

Getting equipment in place is one thing, but ensuring it will run safely is another matter. Electronic equipment is very sensitive and factors such as temperature control, humidity control, dust contamination, and other environmental conditions must be considered. Sources of EMI (electromagnetic interference) must also be located and marked to ensure any new equipment does not suffer performance issues.

In the event of an emergency, potential hazards also need to be identified. Are there fire extinguishers or a sprinkler system available? Are any fire barriers in place or are firestopping measures needed? Is emergency lighting available during a power outage? Is there any chance of the room being flooded? Precautions can ensure these and other factors have a minimum chance of causing equipment damage.

Along with safety, security must also be taken into account. Will any servers and related equipment be kept in a locked room? Where will the access point be and how will authorized users get in? Will there also be locked cabinets within the room? Keeping hardware secure is just as critical as keeping it safe and the two often go hand-in-hand.

Copper vs. Fiber

Fiber lines are becoming more popular but many installations still use copper to save on costs. Copper installations are still more common and take a few simple questions into consideration during a survey. What applications will be used (voice, data, POE)? What data speeds are needed? Modular or 110-type? T568-A or T568-B? Cross-connect or interconnect?

Fiber installations will have some of the same considerations, such as what applications are used and bandwidth requirements. Other factors unique to fiber such as single-mode vs. multimode will also need to be taken into consideration. Many of these unique factors are roughly equivalent to other factors that apply only to copper lines, so the site surveyor can help users compare and make recommendations.

Completing a Site Survey

Once a site survey has been completed, INC will start formulating a plan around the services needed to get the job site up and running. After that information is compiled, a quote will be prepared. The quote will point out any areas of potential concern noticed during the survey to ensure there are no surprises once the work starts. Different options may be available based on performance options and budgetary considerations. Increased performance is often worth a little additional investment, as is setting things up right the first time to avoid problems down the road.

At INC, we perform site surveys for offices, educational facilities, residential buildings, industrial plants, and more. A simple survey is the start of preparing your building for network installations, IT upgrades, cable management systems, and other services. Whether a network uses copper lines, fiber-optic cable, coax runs, or even wireless systems, INC is ready to get the job done right.

If you have additional questions on this process, please call us directly at 888-519-9525 or request a quote here. Our team will work with you to prepare the site survey and customize your installation project.

INC Installs Celebrates 30,000th Installation Project

SAINT LOUIS, Missouri, Mar. 26, 2019 – INC Installs (INC), an Infinite Electronics brand providing network installation services across the continent, has hit a new milestone with 30,000 projects completed. Servicing both the United States and Canada, INC coordinates installation teams across North America, working with organizations ranging from small local businesses to household names such as Edward Jones, Dell, and Geico.

INC offers can coordinate with you for network installations and other related services. Some of our most popular options include site surveys, demarc extensions, fiber optic installation, wireless structure, speaker set-up, and more.

Each new project at INC starts with the client, examining the building layout and client expectations to craft a custom solution specialized for each project’s unique needs. Local installers will be dispatched, arrive knowing what to expect, and begin work immediately. Materials for the project are shipped directly to the job site, eliminating warehouse expenses. Whether it is a small 1-hour project or a major week-long installation, our teams are ready to get the job done today.

For any inquiries, ShowMeCables can be reached at 888-519-9525 or via our quote form: https://www.inc-installs.com/request-quote.


About INC Installss:

Since 1995, INC has developed a scalable and reliable network of thousands of trusted low-voltage cabling partners, audio-visual specialists and satellite technicians across North America to facilitate installations for our clients. Whether they need a demarc extensionstructured cabling installation, an audio-visual installation or even some type of IT equipment installation, INC consistently delivers results and an excellent customer experience.

About Infinite Electronics:

Infinite Electronics is a leading global supplier of electronic components serving the urgent needs of engineers through a family of highly recognized and trusted brands.  Our portfolio brands are specialists within their respective product set, offering broad inventories of engineering-grade product, paired with expert technical support and same day shipping. Over 100,000 customers across a diverse set of markets rely upon Infinite Electronics to stock and reliably ship urgently needed products every day.

The Global Telephone System: Iridium

Photo by Robert Tingle

Most people have not heard of the company, Iridium, before. Some recognize Iridium as the atomic element. But today I am writing about Iridium, the company. Iridium is a company that made a global telephone system, and I mean global: Iridium covers oceans, deserts, mountains, and even the poles. I found an article about Iridium when it first began.

Iridium: From Concept to Reality

by Robert A. Nelson

On the 23rd day of this month, a revolutionary communication system will begin service to the public. Iridium will be the first mobile telephony system to offer voice and data services to and from handheld telephones anywhere in the world. Industry analysts have eagerly awaited this event, as they have debated the nature of the market, the economics, and the technical design.

As with any complex engineering system, credit must be shared among many people. However, the three key individuals who are recognized as having conceived and designed the system are Bary Bertiger,
Dr. Raymond Leopold, and Kenneth Peterson of Motorola, creators of the Iridium system.

The inspiration was an occasion that has entered into the folklore of Motorola. (The story, as recounted here, was the subject of a Wall Street Journal profile on Monday, December 16, 1996.) On a vacation to the Bahamas in 1985, Bertiger’s wife, Karen, wanted to place a cellular telephone call back to her home near the Motorola facility in Chandler, AZ to close a real-estate transaction. After attempting to make the connection without success, she asked Bertiger why it wouldn’t be possible to create a telephone system that would work anywhere, even in the remote Caribbean outback.

Bertiger took the problem back to colleagues Leopold and Peterson at Motorola. Numerous alternative terrestrial designs were discussed and abandoned.

In 1987 research began on a constellation of low earth orbiting satellites that could communicate directly with telephones on the ground and with one another — a kind of inverted cellular telephone system.

But as they left work one day in 1988, Leopold proposed a crucial element of the design. The satellites would be coordinated by a network of “gateway” earth stations connecting the satellite system to existing telephone systems. They quickly agreed that this was the sought-after solution and immediately wrote down an outline using the nearest available medium — a whiteboard in a security guard’s office.

Originally, the constellation was to have consisted of 77 satellites. The constellation was based on a study by William S. Adams and Leonard Rider of the Aerospace Corporation, who published a paper in The Journal of the Astronautical Sciences in 1987 on the configurations of circular, polar satellite constellations at various altitudes providing continuous, full-earth coverage with a minimum number of satellites. However, by 1992 several modifications had been made to the system, including a reduction in the number of satellites from 77 to 66 by the elimination of one orbital plane.

The name Iridium was suggested by a Motorola cellular telephone system engineer, Jim Williams, from the Motorola facility near Chicago. The 77-satellite constellation reminded him of the electrons that encircle the nucleus in the classical Bohr model of the atom. When he consulted the periodic table of the elements to discover which atom had 77 electrons, he found Iridium — a creative name that has a nice ring. Fortunately, the system had not yet been scaled back to 66 satellites, or else he might have suggested the name Dysprosium.

The project was not adopted by senior management immediately. On a visit to the Chandler facility, however, Motorola chairman Robert Galvin learned of the idea and was briefed by Bertiger. Galvin at once endorsed the plan and at a subsequent meeting persuaded Motorola’s president John Mitchell. Ten years have elapsed from this go-ahead decision, and thirteen years since Bertiger’s wife posed the question.

In December 1997 the first Iridium test call was delivered by orbiting satellites. Shortly after completion of the constellation in May 1998, a demonstration was conducted for franchise owners and guests. The new system was ready for operation, and Iridium is now on the threshold of beginning service.

REGULATORY HURDLES

In June, 1990 Motorola announced the development of its Iridium satellite system at simultaneous press conferences in Beijing, London, Melbourne, and New York. The Iridium system was described in an application to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) filed in December of that year, in a supplement of February 1991, and an amendment in August 1992.

At the time, an internationally allocated spectrum for this service by nongeostationary satellites did not even exist. Thus Motorola proposed to offer Radio Determination Satellite Service (RDSS) in addition to mobile digital voice and data communication so that it might qualify for use of available spectrum in the RDSS
L-band from 1610 to 1626.5 MHz. A waiver was requested to provide both two-way digital voice and data services on a co-primary basis with RDSS.

Following the submission of Motorola’s Iridium proposal, the FCC invited applications from other companies for systems to share this band for the new Mobile Satellite Service (MSS). An additional four proposals for nongeostationary mobile telephony systems were submitted to meet the June 3, 1991 deadline, including Loral/Qualcomm’s Globalstar, TRW’s Odyssey, MCHI’s Ellipsat, and Constellation Communications’ Aries. Collectively, these nongeostationary satellite systems became known as the “Big LEOs”. The American Mobile Satellite Corporation (AMSC) also sought to expand existing spectrum for its geostationary satellite into the RDSS band.

At the 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC-92) in Torremolinos, Spain, L-band spectrum from 1610 to 1626.5 MHz was internationally allocated for MSS for earth-to-space (uplink) on a primary basis in all three ITU regions. WARC-92 also allocated to MSS the band 1613.8 to 1626.5 MHz on a secondary basis and spectrum in S-band from 2483.5 to 2500 MHz on a primary basis for space-to-earth (downlink).

In early 1993 the FCC adopted a conforming domestic spectrum allocation and convened a Negotiated Rulemaking proceeding. This series of meetings was attended in Washington, DC by representatives of the six applicants and Celsat, which had expressed an intention to file an application for a geostationary satellite but did not meet the deadline.

The purpose of the proceeding was to provide the companies with the opportunity to devise a frequency- sharing plan and make recommendations. These deliberations were lively, and at times contentious, as Motorola defended its FDMA/TDMA multiple access design against the CDMA technologies of the other participants.

With frequency division multiple access (FDMA), the available spectrum is subdivided into smaller bands allocated to individual users. Iridium extends this multiple access scheme further by using time division multiple access (TDMA) within each FDMA sub-band. Each user is assigned two time slots — one for sending and one for receiving — within a repetitive time frame. During each time slot, the digital data are burst between the mobile handset and the satellite.

With code division multiple access (CDMA), the signal from each user is modulated by a pseudorandom noise (PRN) code. All users share the same spectrum. At the receiver, the desired signal is extracted from the entire population of signals by multiplying by a replica code and performing an autocorrelation process. The key to the success of this method is the existence of sufficient PRN codes that appear to be mathematically orthogonal to one another. Major advantages cited by CDMA proponents are inherently greater capacity and higher spectral efficiency. Frequency reuse clusters can be smaller because interference is reduced between neighboring cells.

In April, 1993 a majority report of Working Group 1 of the Negotiated Rulemaking Committee recommended full band sharing across the entire MSS band by all systems including Iridium. Coordination would be based on an equitable allocation of interference noise produced by each system. The FDMA/TDMA system would be assigned one circular polarization and the CDMA systems would be assigned the opposite polarization. This approach required that each system would be designed with sufficient margin to tolerate the level of interference received from other licensed systems.

Motorola issued a minority report which stated that the Iridium system must have its own spectrum allocation. It proposed partitioning of the MSS L-band spectrum into two equal 8.25 MHz segments for the FDMA/TDMA and CDMA access technologies, with the upper portion being used by the FDMA/TDMA system where it would be sufficiently isolated from neighboring frequencies used by radio astronomy, GPS, and Glonass.

Faced with this impasse, the FCC in January 1994 adopted rulemaking proposals which allocated the upper 5.15 MHz of the MSS L-band spectrum to the sole FDMA/TDMA applicant, Iridium, and assigned the remaining 11.35 MHz to be shared by multiple CDMA systems. However, if only one CDMA system were implemented, the 11.35 MHz allotment would be reduced to 8.25 MHz, leaving 3.10 MHz available for additional spectrum to Iridium or a new applicant.

The response to the Commission’s proposals from the Big LEO applicants was generally favorable. Without this compromise, the alternative would have been to hold a lottery or auction to allocate the spectrum. The Iridium system was designed to operate with the full spectrum allocation. However, with 5.15 MHz, the system is a viable business proposition. The additional 3.10 MHz, should it become available, further adds to the system’s attractiveness.

The FCC also proposed that the MSS spectrum could be used only by Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellite systems. Therefore, the geostationary orbit (GEO) systems of AMSC and Celsat would not be permitted in this band. To qualify for a Big LEO license, the Commission proposed that the service must be global (excluding the poles) and that companies must meet stringent financial standards.

In October, 1994 the FCC issued its final rules for MSS, closely following language of the January proposed rulemaking. However, it allowed the CDMA systems to share the entire 16.5 MHz of downlink spectrum in S-band. The Commission gave the Big LEO applicants a November 16 deadline to amend their applications to conform to the new licensing rules.

On January 31, 1995 the FCC granted licenses to Iridium, Globalstar, and Odyssey but withheld its decision on Ellipsat and Aries pending an evaluation of their financial qualifications. The latter companies finally received licenses in June last year, while in December TRW dropped its Odyssey system in favor of partnership with ICO, the international subsidiary of Inmarsat which entered the competition in 1995.

Outside the United States, Iridium must obtain access rights in each country where service is provided. The company expects to have reached agreements with 90 priority countries that represent 85% of its business plan by the start of service this month. Altogether, Iridium is seeking access to some 200 countries through an arduous negotiating process.

FINANCING

Iridium LLC was established by Motorola in December, 1991 to build and operate the Iridium system, with Robert W. Kinzie as its chairman. In December, 1996 Edward F. Staiano was appointed Vice Chairman and CEO.

Iridium LLC, based in Washington, DC, is a 19-member international consortium of strategic investors representing telecommuni-cation and industrial companies, including a 25 percent stake by its prime contractor, Motorola, Inc.

In August 1993, Motorola and Iridium LLC announced they had completed the first-round financing of the Iridium system with $800 million in equity. The second round was completed in September, 1994, bringing the total to $1.6 billion. In July of last year $800 million in debt financing was completed. Iridium World Communications, Ltd., a Bermuda company, was formed to serve as a vehicle for public investment in the Iridium system. In June 1997 an initial $240 million public offering was made on the NASDAQ Stock Exchange.

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION

The Iridium constellation consists of 66 satellites in near-polar circular orbits inclined at 86.4° at an altitude of 780 km. The satellites are distributed into six planes separated by 31.6° around the equator with eleven satellites per plane. There is also one spare satellite in each plane.

Starting on May 5, 1997, the entire constellation was deployed within twelve months on launch vehicles from three continents: the U.S. Delta II, the Russian Proton, and the Chinese Long March. The final complement of five 700 kg (1500 lb) satellites was launched aboard a Delta II rocket on May 17. With a satellite lifetime of from 5 to 8 years, it is expected that the replenishment rate will be about a dozen satellites per year after the second year of operation.

The altitude was specified to be within the range 370 km (200 nmi) and 1100 km (600 nmi). The engineers wanted a minimum altitude of 370 km so that the satellite would be above the residual atmosphere, which would have diminished lifetime without extensive stationkeeping, and a maximum altitude of 1100 km so that the satellite would be below the Van Allen radiation environment, which would require shielding.

Each satellite covers a circular area roughly the size of the United States with a diameter of about 4400 km, having an elevation angle of 8.2° at the perimeter and subtending an angle of 39.8° with respect to the center of the earth. The coverage area is divided into 48 cells. The satellite has three main beam phased array antennas, each of which serves 16 cells.

The period of revolution is approximately 100 minutes, so that a given satellite is in view about 9 minutes. The user is illuminated by a single cell for about one minute. Complex protocols are required to provide continuity of communication seamlessly as handover is passed from cell to cell and from satellite to satellite. The communications link requires 3.5 million lines of software, while an additional 14 million lines of code are required for navigation and switching. As satellites converge near the poles, redundant beams are shut off. There are approximately 2150 active beams over the globe.

The total spectrum of 5.15 MHz is divided into 120 FDMA channels, each with a bandwidth of 31.5 kHz and a guardband of 10.17 kHz to minimize intermodulation effects and two guardbands of 37.5 kHz to allow for Doppler frequency shifts. Within each FDMA channel, there are four TDMA slots in each direction (uplink and downlink). The coded data burst rate with QPSK modulation and raised cosine filtering is 50 kbps (corresponding to an occupied bandwidth of 1.26 ´ 50 kbps / 2 = 31.5 kHz). Each TDMA slot has length 8.29 ms in a 90 ms frame. The supported vocoder information bit rate is 2.4 kbps for digital voice, fax, and data. The total information bit rate, with rate 3/4 forward error correction (FEC) coding, is 3.45 kbps (0.75 ´ (8.28 ms/90 ms) ´ 50 kbps = 3.45 kbps), which includes overhead and source encoding, exclusive of FEC coding, for weighting of parameters in importance of decoding the signal. The bit error ratio (BER) at threshold is nominally 0.01 but is much better 99 percent of the time.

The vocoder is analogous to a musical instrument synthesizer. In this case, the “instrument” is the human vocal tract. Instead of performing analogue-to-digital conversion using pulse code modulation (PCM) with a nominal data rate of 64 kbps (typical of terrestrial toll-quality telephone circuits), the vocoder transmits a set of parameters that emulate speech patterns, vowel sounds, and acoustic level. The resulting bit rate of 2.4 kbps is thus capable of transmitting clear, intelligible speech comparable to the performance of high quality terrestrial cellular telephones, but not quite the quality of standard telephones.

The signal strength has a nominal 16 dB link margin. This margin is robust for users in exterior urban environments, but is not sufficient to penetrate buildings. Satellite users will have to stand near windows or go outside to place a call. Handover from cell to cell within the field of view of an orbiting satellite is imperceptible. Handover from satellite to satellite every nine minutes may occasionally be detectable by a quarter-second gap.

Each satellite has a capacity of about 1100 channels. However, the actual number of users within a satellite coverage area will vary and the distribution of traffic among cells is not symmetrical.

CALL ROUTING

The Iridium satellites are processing satellites that route a call through the satellite constellation. The system is coordinated by 12 physical gateways distributed around the world, although in principle only a single gateway would be required for complete global coverage. Intersatellite links operate in Ka-band from 23.18 to 23.38 GHz and satellite-gateway links operate in Ka-band at 29.1 to 29.3 GHz (uplink) and 19.4 to 19.6 GHz (downlink).

For example, a gateway in Tempe, Arizona serves North America and Central America; a gateway in Italy serves Europe and Africa; a gateway in India serves southern Asia and Australia. There are 15 regional franchise owners, some of whom share gateway facilities. The constellation is managed from a new satellite network operations center in Lansdowne, Virginia.

As described by Craig Bond, Iridium’s vice president for marketing development, the user dials a telephone number with the handset using an international 13 digit number as one would do normally using a standard telephone. The user presses the “send” button to access the nearest satellite. The system identifies the user’s position and authenticates the handset at the nearest gateway with the home location register (HLR).

Once the user is validated, the call is sent to the satellite. The call is routed through the constellation and drops to the gateway closest to the destination. There it is completed over standard terrestrial circuits.

For a call from a fixed location to a handset, the process is reversed. After the call is placed, the system identifies the recipient’s location and the handset rings, no matter where the user is on the earth.

It is projected that about 95 percent of the traffic will be between a mobile handset and a telephone at a fixed location. The remaining 5 percent of the traffic represents calls placed from one handset to another handset anywhere in the world. In this case, the call “never touches the ground” until it is received by the handset of the intended recipient.

By comparison, a “bent pipe” satellite system, such as Globalstar, requires that a single satellite see both the user and the nearest gateway simultaneously. Thus many more gateways are needed. For example, in Africa Globalstar will require about a dozen gateways, while Iridium has none at all. Globalstar advocates would counter that this is not a disadvantage, since their system places the complexity on the ground rather than the satellite and offers greater flexibility in building and upgrading the system.

HANDSET

The Iridium handsets are built by Motorola and Kyocera, a leading manufacturer of cellular telephones in Japan. Handsets will permit both satellite access and terrestrial cellular roaming capability within the same unit. The unit also includes a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card. Major regional cellular standards are interchanged by inserting a Cellular Cassette. Paging options are available, as well as separate compact Iridium pagers.

The price for a typical configuration will be around $3,000. The handsets will be available through service providers and cellular roaming partners. In June, Iridium finalized its 200th local distribution agreement.

Information on how to obtain Iridium telephones will be advertised widely. Customers will also be actively solicited through credit card and travel services memberships. Distribution of the handsets and setup will typically be through sales representatives who will interface with the customer directly. Rental programs will also be available to give potential customers the opportunity to try out the system on a temporary basis.

MARKET

Iridium has conducted extensive research to measure the market. As described by Iridium’s Bond, the intended market can be divided into two segments: the vertical market and the horizontal market.

The vertical market consists of customers in remote areas who require satellites for their communications needs because they cannot access conventional terrestrial cellular networks. This market includes personnel in the petroleum, gas, mining, and shipping industries. It also includes the branches of the U.S. military. In fact, the U.S. government has built a dedicated gateway in Hawaii capable of serving 120,000 users so that it can access the Iridium system at a lower per minute charge.

The horizontal market is represented by the international business traveler. This type of customer wants to keep in contact with the corporate office no matter where he or she is in the world. Although mindful of the satellite link, this customer doesn’t really care how the telephone system works, as long as it is always available easily and reliably.

It has been consistently estimated that the total price for satellite service will be about $3.00 per minute. This price is about 25 percent to 35 percent higher than normal cellular roaming rates plus long distance charges. When using the roaming cellular capability, the price will be about $1.00 to $1.25 per minute.

The expected break-even market for Iridium is about 600,000 customers globally, assuming an undisclosed average usage per customer per month. The company hopes to recover its $5 billion investment within one year, or by the fourth quarter of 1999. Based on independent research, Iridium anticipates a customer base of 5 million by 2002.

PROBLEMS

As might be expected for a complex undertaking, the deployment of the constellation and the manufacture of the handsets has not been without glitches. So far, a total of seven spacecraft have suffered in-orbit failures. In addition, Iridium has announced delays in the development of the handset software.

Of the 72 satellites launched, including spares, one lost its stationkeeping fuel when a thruster did not shut off, one was damaged as it was released from a Delta II launch vehicle, and three had reaction wheel problems. In July two more satellites failed because of hardware problems. Delta II and Long March rockets, scheduled to begin a maintenance program of launching additional spares, were retargeted to deploy seven replacement birds to the orbital planes where they are needed in August.

Investors are also nervous about final software upgrades to the handsets. Following alpha trials last month, beta testing of the units was scheduled to commence within one week of the September 23 commercial activation date. The Motorola handsets are expected to be available to meet initial demand, but those made by Kyocera may not be ready until later. [Note added: On September 9, Iridium announced that the debut of full commercial service would be delayed until November 1 because more time is needed to test the global system.]

The fifteen gateways have been completed. Equipment for the China gateway, the last one, was shipped recently. Like a theatrical production, the players are frantically completing last minute details as the curtain is about to go up and Iridium embarks upon the world stage.

THE FUTURE

Iridium is already at work on its Next Generation system (Inx). Planning the system has been underway for more than a year. Although details have not been announced, it has been suggested that the system would be capable of providing broadband services to mobile terminals. In part, it would augment the fixed terminal services offered by Teledesic, which Motorola is helping to build, and might include aspects of Motorola’s former Celestri system. It has also been reported that the Inx terminal would provide greater flexibility in transitioning between satellite and cellular services and that the satellite power level would be substantially increased.

As customers sign up for satellite mobile telephony service, the utility and competitive advantage will become apparent. Information will flow more freely, the world will grow still smaller, and economies around the world will be stimulated. There will also be a profound effect on geopolitics and culture. Just as satellite television helped bring down the Berlin Wall by the flow of pictures and information across international boundaries, the dawning age of global personal communication among individuals will bring the world community closer together as a single family.